Monograph 109: A Generation at Risk? HIV/Aids, Vulnerable Children and Security in Southern Africa, Edited by Robyn Pharoah
HIV/AIDS is acknowledged as an increasingly significant
humanitarian and developmental concern. It is also increasingly seen as a
security issue, with implications for the well-being of individuals,
households, communities and states. Faced with the prospect of growing
numbers of AIDS orphans, some analysts have speculated that large
numbers of orphans could themselves represent a security challenge.
It has been argued that by reducing the resources available to
children and destabilising the institutions on which they depend—such as
the family, school and community—HIV/AIDS may severely affect
children’s development. This may not only result in increased child
mortality, morbidity and school drop out, but also increased
victimisation and exploitation of children. By reducing the financial
and emotional resources available to children, causing trauma and
alienation and effectively limiting the realistic aspirations of the
youngsters affected, it is also feared that the epidemic may create
generations of disenfranchised and potentially dysfunctional young
people who lack the socialisation necessary for constructive social
engagement. Growing numbers of marginalised children may in turn impact
on stability and security in at least two ways: they may become both the
victims and perpetrators of crime; and may provide a ready recruitment
pool for individuals and organisations wishing to challenge the existing
status quo.
Most of these arguments are, however, based on a particular vision
of what orphanhood generally entails. The picture painted conjures up
images of hordes of traumatised, unwanted children being cast to the
very fringes of society; suffering wanton neglect and abuse and,
ultimately, being left to fend for themselves in a world where life is
often ‘short, harsh and cheap’. This vision itself is based on a number
of assumptions, including that:
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the HIV/AIDS epidemic will result in large numbers of children being left in vulnerable circumstances;
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the experience of children affected and orphaned by HIV/AIDS will
generally be qualitatively different from that of other children; and
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large-scale orphaning will result in large numbers of scarred and
marginalised children who will be unable to become healthy, productive
adults capable of contributing to and running healthy societies in the
future.
The aim of this monograph is to examine such assumptions by
exploring both the context in which HIV/AIDS orphaning is occurring and
the likely developmental implications of both HIV/AIDS and AIDS-related
orphanhood. In so doing it seeks to better understand both what it means
to be a child in Southern Africa and the factors affecting the
interplay between HIV/AIDS, poverty and vulnerability. Key issues raised
in the monograph include:
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Many children are not raised in ideal, stable family environments:
Irrespective of HIV/AIDS, large numbers of children grow up in
single-parent households, usually headed by women, and fathers are often
absent. Levels of fosterage are high and the reality of children being
sent away from their natal home in order to access care or resources is
not new.
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Orphanhood is a complex phenomenon: While orphaning is on
the increase, and will have risen exponentially in most countries in the
region by 2010, relatively few children would presently seem to be
living in situations of extreme vulnerability. Indeed, although
increasing numbers of orphans are beginning to place stress on
traditional coping mechanisms such as the extended family, they are
still remarkably intact and surprisingly small numbers of children have
so far found themselves without the support they provide. Children are
most likely to be orphaned during adolescence and often have a surviving
parent, usually their mother.
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It is often difficult to determine where the effects of HIV/AIDS begin and end:
Many children in the region are going to be negatively affected by
HIV/AIDS. Children may experience a range of impacts including economic
need, reduced levels of care, poor health and nutrition, new
responsibilities and work and school drop out, as well as psychosocial
impacts such as abuse, trauma, stress and a loss of social connectivity.
They may also be placed at greater risk of infection. The effects of
the epidemic on children are, however, not only likely to vary
considerably by age, but high levels of ambient poverty often makes it
difficult to determine the causality of these effects. The conditions in
many poor communities mean that few, if any, of these effects are
specific to children affected by HIV/AIDS and it is impossible to
isolate the effects of conditions that pre-date the death of a
caregiver. It is also clear that HIV/AIDS increasingly affects almost
everyone in severely affected communities, even households without
HIV-positive members.
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‘Affected ’ children are not habitually treated differently to ‘unaffected ’ children:
Although some orphaned and fostered children are abused, mistreated,
exploited or abandoned, most studies suggest that children are generally
not treated differently by caregivers on the basis of their orphaned or
fostered status. Measured largely in terms of educational enrollment,
most evidence suggests that relatives often go to considerable lengths
to meet the needs of the children in their care, including borrowing
money through informal networks and selling their own assets.
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Not all children are equally vulnerable: While some children
are left in precarious circumstances as a result of parental illness
and death, many children remain linked into support networks of various
kinds. Children, such as those in child-headed households and street
children, who at face value live in extremely vulnerable circumstances,
often continue to benefit from some type of adult support. In some
cases, child-headed households and street work may represent coping
mechanisms developed in response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic.
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Negative experiences do not necessarily result in negative psychosocial outcomes:
While HIV/AIDS stands to exacerbate the multitude of risks faced by
children in poor communities, children are often remarkably successful
in overcoming such difficulties. The impact of risk factors is mediated
by a range of factors, including personality and temperament, learned
coping style, age of exposure, the availability of caring adults and
social supports in their environment and, critically, opportunities for
recovery afforded by achievements, new relationships, changing
circumstances and the like. The implications of negative experiences are
thus as much a result of the circumstances surrounding the experience,
and the way it is interpreted, as the nature of the experiences per se;
and it is estimated that only about one-third of children exposed to
severe adversity will suffer negative psychosocial outcomes. Even where
children do suffer negative effects as a result of their exposure to
difficulties, studies suggest that they tend to show internalising
rather than externalising symptoms in response to such
impacts—depression, anxiety and withdrawal—as opposed to aggression and
other forms of antisocial behaviour that may affect the security of
communities and states.
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Effective responses are being put in place: Despite
difficulties posed by the epidemic, communities throughout Africa have
begun to add additional layers to their community safety nets by
providing material, educational, emotional and psychosocial support to
children affected by HIV/AIDS. A number of local, national and regional
level initiatives have also been developed which have successfully
helped to mitigate the psychosocial impacts of the epidemic on children
and fa mili es. Such initiatives are still relatively few in number and
have been limited in their reach and impact, but both illustrate that
valuable, cost-effective responses can be, and have been, put in place
and provide valuable lessons for scaling up effective responses to the
epidemic.
These points suggest that while HIV/AIDS does indeed pose a notable
humanitarian and developmental challenge, it is open to question as to
whether the impacts of the epidemic will play out in such a way that
children themselves pose a significant threat to stability and security
in the Southern African region. Potential linkages between HIV/AIDS,
insecurity and instability do exist and it is thus likely that a certain
number of children affected by HIV/AIDS will suffer negative
psychosocial outcomes. Some will be exploited, abused and victimised and
will themselves perpetrate crime and violence. This is obviously
undesirable and every effort should be made to address the underlying
vulnerabilities that expose children to such conditions. Yet, not all
children are equally vulnerable and there exist a number of factors that
will determine whether children at risk suffer such outcomes. Moreover,
in a context where levels of ambient poverty are already high, few if
any of these outcomes will be confined to children affected by HIV/AIDS
(even if such a category can be defined).
Mechanisms nevertheless need to be put in place to support both
those children that do ‘fall through the cracks’ and the extended family
that has up to this point proved so resilient. Community institutions,
governments and international agencies can and have put in place
effective programmes. The lessons presented by such initiatives need to
be heeded and decisive action taken by stakeholders at all levels to
mobilise the human and financial resources necessary to implement such
responses successfully.